Introduction
Decision-making is one of the most critical components of people's lives. It involves cognitive factors, which are responsible for processing the stimuli present in the task, remembering past experiences, and assessing the possible consequences that emotional decisions can have. So far, there are no studies of this nature in Ecuador, so this research seeks to establish the characteristics of the Ecuadorian population. With the results obtained, we expect to gain insight into the way this population handles decisions in daily life.

Objective
To relate decision-making to behavioral regulation and metacognition in a sample of Ecuadorian men.

Methods
We used a quasi-experimental design. We recruited 33 male subjects from the general population. We evaluated decision-making through the experimental Iowa Gambling Task. Behavior regulation and metacognition were assessed with the Executive Func-tion Behavior Classification (adult version).

Results
The main result was that, in the index of behavior regulation, decision-making is related to change and emotional control. In the metacognition index, it is related to working memory, task organization, and planning and organization. We found that the partic-ipants tend to make risky decisions at the beginning of the task, but as it progresses, participants make less risky decisions.

Conclusions
The implicit learning of the test operation allows the participants to assign emotional values to the results obtained when choos-ing a particular deck that takes into account past experiences, thus making it possible to anticipate consequences. The results are novel in that the relationship between an experimental behavior pattern linked to risky and non-risky decisions and its association with different executive functions is analyzed through the application of a questionnaire.

Authors: Karla Pérez-Lalama[1], Mabel Urrutia[2], Silvia Mancheno-Durán[3], David Balseca-Bolaños[3], Marco Gamboa-Proaño[3]

Affiliation:
[1] Programa de doctorado en Psicología de la Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Departamento de Psicología, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
[2] Facultad de Educación, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
[3] Facultad de Ciencias Psicológicas, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador

E-mail: maurrutia@udec.cl

Author address:
[1] Edmundo Larenas 335
Concepción
Chile.

Citation: Pérez-Lalama K, Urrutia M, Mancheno-Durán S, Balseca-Bolaños D, Gamboa-Proaño M. . Medwave 2020;20(3):e7855 doi: 10.5867/medwave.2020.03.7855

Submission date: 19/10/2019

Acceptance date: 18/2/2020

Publication date: 20/4/2020

Origin: Not commissioned.

Type of review: Externally peer-reviewed by three reviewers, double-blind.

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2. Diamond A, Lee K. Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science. 2011 Aug 19;333(6045):959-64. | CrossRef | PubMed |
3. Diamond A. Executive Functions: Insights Into Ways to Help More Children Thrive. Zero to Three. 2014;35(2):9-17.
4. Diamond A, Ling DS. Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2016 Apr;18:34-48. | CrossRef | PubMed |
5. Miyake A, Emerson MJ, Friedman NP. Assessment of executive functions in clinical settings: problems and recommendations. Semin Speech Lang. 2000;21(2):169-83. | CrossRef | PubMed |
6. Roa-Inostroza M. Funciones ejecutivas y su relación con el trastorno específico del lenguaje. Paideia. 2015;57:81-91.
7. García-Molina A, Enseñat-Cantallops A, Tirapu-Ustárroz J, Roig-Rovira T. [Maturation of the prefrontal cortex and development of the executive functions during the first five years of life]. Rev Neurol. 2009 Apr 16-30;48(8):435-40. | PubMed |
8. Miyake A, Friedman NP. The Nature and Organization of Individual Differences in Executive Functions: Four General Conclusions. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2012 Feb;21(1):8-14. | CrossRef | PubMed |
9. Trujillo N, Pineda D. Función Ejecutiva en la Investigación de los Trastornos del Comportamiento del niño y el adolescente. Revista Neuropsicología, Neuropsiquiatría y Neurociencias. 2008;8(1):77-94. [Internet] | Link |
10. Mauricio C, Stelzer F, Mazzoni C, Álvarez MÁ. Desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas en niños prescolares. Una revisión de su vínculo con el temperamento y el modo de crianza. Pensando Psicología. 2012;8(15):128-39.
11. Lezak M. The problem of assessing executive functions. International Journal of Psychology. 1982;17(4):281-97.
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13. Villegas-Pantoja MA, Alonso-Castillo MM, Benavides-Torres RA, Guzman-Facundo FR. Alcohol Consumption and Executive Functions in Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Aquichan. 2013;13(2):234-46. [Internet] | Link |
14. Tirapu-Ustárroz J, Luna-Lario P. Neuropsicología de las Funciones Ejecutivas. VIGUERA; 2010:221-54.
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21. Damasio A. La hipótesis del macador somático. El error de Descartes: la emoción, la razón y el cerebro humano. España. 2013:233-77.
22. Martínez M, Vasco C. Sentimientos: encuentro entre la neurobiología y la ética según Antonio Damasio. Revista Colombiana de Bioética. 2011;6(2):181-94. [Internet] | Link |
23. Damasio A. La hipótesis del marcador somático.2013;1:233-77.
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26. Broche-Pérez Y, Herrera Jiménez LF, Omar-Martínez E. Neural substrates of decision-making. Neurologia. 2016 Jun;31(5):319-25. | CrossRef | PubMed |
27. Bechara A, Damasio H, Tranel D, Damasio AR. The Iowa Gambling Task and the somatic marker hypothesis: some questions and answers. Trends Cogn Sci. 2005 Apr;9(4):159-62; discussion 162-4. | CrossRef | PubMed |
28. Márquez MdR, Salguero P, Paíno S, Alameda JR. La hipótesis del Marcador Somático y su incidencia en el proceso de toma de decisiones. Revista Electónica de Metodología Aplicada. 2013;10(1):17-36.
29. Buelow MT, Suhr JA. Construct validity of the Iowa Gambling Task. Neuropsychology review. 2009;19(1):102-14. | CrossRef | PubMed |
30. Michelini Y, Acuña I, Godoy JC. Emociones, toma de decisiones y consumo de alcohol en jóvenes universitarios. Suma Psicológica. 2016;23(1):42-50. | CrossRef |
31. Contreras D, Catena A, Cándido A, Perales J, Maldonado J. Funciones de la corteza prefrontal ventromedial en la toma de desiciones emocionales. Interntional Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology. 2008;8(1):285-2600. [Internet] | Link |
32. Kumar R, Janakiprasad Kumar K, Benegal V. Underlying decision making processes on Iowa Gambling Task. Asian J Psychiatr. 2019 Jan;39:63-69. | CrossRef | PubMed |
33. Chiu YC, Huang JT, Duann JR, Lin CH. Editorial: Twenty Years After the Iowa Gambling Task: Rationality, Emotion, and Decision-Making. Front Psychol. 2018 Jan 25;8:2353. | CrossRef | PubMed |
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39. Bechara A, Damasio AR, Damasio H, Anderson S. Insensitivity to future consequeces following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition. 1994;50:7-15.
40. Broche-Perez Y, Herrera-Jimenez LF. Funciones Ejecutivas "Frías" y "Calientes" en adolescentes con Trastorno Disocial. Revista Neuropsicologá, Neuropsiquiatría y Neurociencias. 2016;16(3):157-75.
41. Bechara A. The role of emotion in decision-making: evidence from neurological patients with orbitofrontal damage. Brain Cogn. 2004 Jun;55(1):30-40. | CrossRef | PubMed |
42. Bechara A, Damasio H, Tranel D, Damasio AR. The Iowa Gambling Task and the somatic marker hypothesis: some questions and answers. Trends Cogn Sci. 2005 Apr;9(4):159-62; discussion 162-4. | CrossRef | PubMed |
43. Martínez-Selva JM, Sanchez-Navarro JP, Bechara A, Román.F. Mecanismos Cerebrales de la toma de decisiones. Revista de Neurología REV NEUROL. 2006;42(7):411-8.
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45. Bechara A, Damasio H, Tranel D, Damasio AR. Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy. Science. 1997 Feb 28;275(5304):1293-5. | CrossRef | PubMed |
46. Schneidder W, Eschma A, Zuccolotto A. E-Prime. Psychoogy Software Tools,Inc. 2012.
47. Smith-Castro V, Molina-Delgado M. La Entrevista Cognitiva: Guía Para Su Aplicación En La Evaluación Y Mejoramiento De Instrumentos De Papel Y Lápiz. Universidad de Costa Rica; 2011.
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50. Bonilla-Santos J, González-Hernádez A, Bonilla-Santos G, Muñoz-Bernal L, Baldovino-Pérez I. Toma de decisiones en menores con factores de riesgo para Trastorno Disocial de la Conducta. Rev Méd Risaralda. 2017;23(1):13-6.
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54. Schmeichel BJ, Tang D. Individual Differences in Executive Functioning and Their Relationship to Emotional Processes and Responses. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2015;24(2):93-8. | CrossRef |
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56. Verdejo-García A, Bechara A. A somatic marker theory of addiction. Neuropharmacology. 2009;56 Suppl 1:48-62. | CrossRef | PubMed |
57. Verdejo-García A, Bechara A. [Neuropsychology of executive functions]. Psicothema. 2010 May;22(2):227-35. | PubMed |
58. García-Molina A, Rodríguez-Rajo P, Vendrell-Gómez P, Junqué C, Roig-Rovira T. Disfunción orbitofrontal en la esclerosis múltiple: Iowa Gambling Task. Psicothema. 2008;20(3):445-9. [Internet] | Link |
59. Mogedas A, Alamenda J. Toma de decisiones en pacientes drogodependientes. Adicciones. 2011;23(4):227-87. | CrossRef |
60. Lawrence N, Jollant F, O´Dally O, Zelaya F, Phillips M. Distinct Roles of Prefrontal Cortical Subregions in the Iowa Gambling Task. Cerebral Cortex. 2009;19:1134-43. | CrossRef |
61. Ramos C, Pérez C. Relación entre el modelo híbrido de las funciones ejecutivas y el trastorno por déficit de atención con hiperactividad. Psicología desde el Caribe. 2015;32(2):299-314. [Internet] | Link |
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67. Verdejo-Garcia A. Funciones ejecutivas y toma de decisiones en drogodependientes: rendimiento neuropsicológico y funcionamiento cerebral. Universidad de Granada. 2006.

Downes M, Bathelt J, De Haan M. Event-related potential measures of executive functioning from preschool to adolescence. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2017 Jun;59(6):581-590. | CrossRef | PubMed |

Diamond A, Lee K. Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science. 2011 Aug 19;333(6045):959-64. | CrossRef | PubMed |

Diamond A. Executive Functions: Insights Into Ways to Help More Children Thrive. Zero to Three. 2014;35(2):9-17.

Diamond A, Ling DS. Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2016 Apr;18:34-48. | CrossRef | PubMed |

Miyake A, Emerson MJ, Friedman NP. Assessment of executive functions in clinical settings: problems and recommendations. Semin Speech Lang. 2000;21(2):169-83. | CrossRef | PubMed |

Roa-Inostroza M. Funciones ejecutivas y su relación con el trastorno específico del lenguaje. Paideia. 2015;57:81-91.

García-Molina A, Enseñat-Cantallops A, Tirapu-Ustárroz J, Roig-Rovira T. [Maturation of the prefrontal cortex and development of the executive functions during the first five years of life]. Rev Neurol. 2009 Apr 16-30;48(8):435-40. | PubMed |

Miyake A, Friedman NP. The Nature and Organization of Individual Differences in Executive Functions: Four General Conclusions. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2012 Feb;21(1):8-14. | CrossRef | PubMed |

Trujillo N, Pineda D. Función Ejecutiva en la Investigación de los Trastornos del Comportamiento del niño y el adolescente. Revista Neuropsicología, Neuropsiquiatría y Neurociencias. 2008;8(1):77-94. [Internet] | Link |

Mauricio C, Stelzer F, Mazzoni C, Álvarez MÁ. Desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas en niños prescolares. Una revisión de su vínculo con el temperamento y el modo de crianza. Pensando Psicología. 2012;8(15):128-39.

Lezak M. The problem of assessing executive functions. International Journal of Psychology. 1982;17(4):281-97.

Diamond A. Executive Fuctions. Annual Review og Psichology. 2013(64):135-68. | CrossRef | PubMed |

Villegas-Pantoja MA, Alonso-Castillo MM, Benavides-Torres RA, Guzman-Facundo FR. Alcohol Consumption and Executive Functions in Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Aquichan. 2013;13(2):234-46. [Internet] | Link |

Tirapu-Ustárroz J, Luna-Lario P. Neuropsicología de las Funciones Ejecutivas. VIGUERA; 2010:221-54.

Verdejo-García A, Bechara A. [Neuropsychology of executive functions]. Psicothema. 2010 May;22(2):227-35. | PubMed |

Carmona-Perera M, Verdejo-García A, Young L, Molina-Fernández A, Pérez-García M. Moral decision-making in polysubstance dependent individuals. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012 Dec 1;126(3):389-92. | CrossRef | PubMed |

Michelini Y, Acuña I, Godoy JC. Emociones, toma de decisiones y consumo de alcohol en jóvenes universitarios. Suma Psicológica. 2016;23:23-50.

Carmona S, Moreno A. Control ejecutivo, toma de decisiones, razonamiento y resolución de problemas. Neurociencia Cognitiva. Panamericana. España. 2014:719-45.

Bechara A, Damasio AR. The somatic marker hypothesis: A neural theory of economic decision. Games Econ Behav. 2005;52(2):336-72. | CrossRef |

Contreras D, Catena A, Candido A, Perales JC, Maldonado A. The role of ventromedial prefrontal cortex in emotional decision-making. Int J Clin Health Psychol. 2008;8(1):285-313. [Internet] | Link |

Damasio A. La hipótesis del macador somático. El error de Descartes: la emoción, la razón y el cerebro humano. España. 2013:233-77.

Martínez M, Vasco C. Sentimientos: encuentro entre la neurobiología y la ética según Antonio Damasio. Revista Colombiana de Bioética. 2011;6(2):181-94. [Internet] | Link |

Damasio A. La hipótesis del marcador somático.2013;1:233-77.

Contreras Abarca M, Ceric F, Torrealba F. The negative side of emotions: Addiction to drugs of abuse. Revista De Neurologia. 2008;47(9):471-6. | PubMed |

Carmona M, Pérez M. Emociones y funciones ejecutivas. Neuropsicología de la corteza prefrontal y las funciones ejecutivas. España: VIGUERA; 2012:391-415.

Broche-Pérez Y, Herrera Jiménez LF, Omar-Martínez E. Neural substrates of decision-making. Neurologia. 2016 Jun;31(5):319-25. | CrossRef | PubMed |

Bechara A, Damasio H, Tranel D, Damasio AR. The Iowa Gambling Task and the somatic marker hypothesis: some questions and answers. Trends Cogn Sci. 2005 Apr;9(4):159-62; discussion 162-4. | CrossRef | PubMed |

Márquez MdR, Salguero P, Paíno S, Alameda JR. La hipótesis del Marcador Somático y su incidencia en el proceso de toma de decisiones. Revista Electónica de Metodología Aplicada. 2013;10(1):17-36.

Buelow MT, Suhr JA. Construct validity of the Iowa Gambling Task. Neuropsychology review. 2009;19(1):102-14. | CrossRef | PubMed |

Michelini Y, Acuña I, Godoy JC. Emociones, toma de decisiones y consumo de alcohol en jóvenes universitarios. Suma Psicológica. 2016;23(1):42-50. | CrossRef |

Contreras D, Catena A, Cándido A, Perales J, Maldonado J. Funciones de la corteza prefrontal ventromedial en la toma de desiciones emocionales. Interntional Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology. 2008;8(1):285-2600. [Internet] | Link |

Kumar R, Janakiprasad Kumar K, Benegal V. Underlying decision making processes on Iowa Gambling Task. Asian J Psychiatr. 2019 Jan;39:63-69. | CrossRef | PubMed |

Chiu YC, Huang JT, Duann JR, Lin CH. Editorial: Twenty Years After the Iowa Gambling Task: Rationality, Emotion, and Decision-Making. Front Psychol. 2018 Jan 25;8:2353. | CrossRef | PubMed |

Balluerka N, Vergara A. Diseños de Investigación experimental en Psicología. Prentice Hall. Madrid;2002:5-9.

Montero I, León O. A guide for naming reserch studies in Psychology. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology. 2007;7(3):847-62. [Internet] | Link |

Rios-Valles JA, Gurrola-González AL, Hernández-Tinoco J, Martínez-Martínez PL. Análisis descriptivo por género de las funciones neurocognitivas en alumnos de la Licenciatura de Medicina de la Facultad de Medicina y Nutrición de la UJED. Revista de Ciencias de la Salud. 2017;4(13):1-13.

OMS. Guía de bolsillo de la clasificación CIE-10: Clasificación de los trastornos mentales y del comportamiento. Editorial Médica Panamericana. Madrid;2000.

Gioia GA, Isquith PK. Evaluación Conductua de la Funcion Ejecutiva. BRIEF-A2010. [Internet] | Link |

Bechara A, Damasio AR, Damasio H, Anderson S. Insensitivity to future consequeces following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition. 1994;50:7-15.

Broche-Perez Y, Herrera-Jimenez LF. Funciones Ejecutivas "Frías" y "Calientes" en adolescentes con Trastorno Disocial. Revista Neuropsicologá, Neuropsiquiatría y Neurociencias. 2016;16(3):157-75.

Bechara A. The role of emotion in decision-making: evidence from neurological patients with orbitofrontal damage. Brain Cogn. 2004 Jun;55(1):30-40. | CrossRef | PubMed |

Bechara A, Damasio H, Tranel D, Damasio AR. The Iowa Gambling Task and the somatic marker hypothesis: some questions and answers. Trends Cogn Sci. 2005 Apr;9(4):159-62; discussion 162-4. | CrossRef | PubMed |

Martínez-Selva JM, Sanchez-Navarro JP, Bechara A, Román.F. Mecanismos Cerebrales de la toma de decisiones. Revista de Neurología REV NEUROL. 2006;42(7):411-8.

Clark L, Manes F, Antoun N, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW. The contributions of lesion laterality and lesion volume to decision-making impairment following frontal lobe damage. Neuropsychologia. 2003;41(11):1474-83. | PubMed |

Bechara A, Damasio H, Tranel D, Damasio AR. Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy. Science. 1997 Feb 28;275(5304):1293-5. | CrossRef | PubMed |

Schneidder W, Eschma A, Zuccolotto A. E-Prime. Psychoogy Software Tools,Inc. 2012.

Smith-Castro V, Molina-Delgado M. La Entrevista Cognitiva: Guía Para Su Aplicación En La Evaluación Y Mejoramiento De Instrumentos De Papel Y Lápiz. Universidad de Costa Rica; 2011.

León O, Montero I. Métodos de Investigación en Psicología y Educación. Cuarta Edición. España.2015.

Verdejo A, Aguilar de Arcos F, Pérez García M. [Alterations in the decision making processes linked to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in drug-abusing patients]. Rev Neurol. 2004 Apr 1-15;38(7):601-6. | PubMed |

Bonilla-Santos J, González-Hernádez A, Bonilla-Santos G, Muñoz-Bernal L, Baldovino-Pérez I. Toma de decisiones en menores con factores de riesgo para Trastorno Disocial de la Conducta. Rev Méd Risaralda. 2017;23(1):13-6.

Clark-Carter D. Quantitative Psychological Research. Tercera ed. Press P. 2010:293.

Bechara A, Damasio H, Damasio A. Emotion, Decision Making and the Orbitofrontal Cortex. Oxford University Press. 2000;10:295-307. | PubMed |

Arteaga G, Quebradas D. Funciones Ejecutivas y marcadores somáticos: apuestas, razón y emociones. El hombre y la Máquina. 2010;34:115-29. [Internet] | Link |

Schmeichel BJ, Tang D. Individual Differences in Executive Functioning and Their Relationship to Emotional Processes and Responses. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2015;24(2):93-8. | CrossRef |

Contreras M, Ceric F, Torrealba F. The negative side of emotions: addiction ti drugs of abuse. Revista de Neurología REV NEUROL. 2008;1(15):471-6. | PubMed |

Verdejo-García A, Bechara A. A somatic marker theory of addiction. Neuropharmacology. 2009;56 Suppl 1:48-62. | CrossRef | PubMed |

Verdejo-García A, Bechara A. [Neuropsychology of executive functions]. Psicothema. 2010 May;22(2):227-35. | PubMed |

García-Molina A, Rodríguez-Rajo P, Vendrell-Gómez P, Junqué C, Roig-Rovira T. Disfunción orbitofrontal en la esclerosis múltiple: Iowa Gambling Task. Psicothema. 2008;20(3):445-9. [Internet] | Link |

Mogedas A, Alamenda J. Toma de decisiones en pacientes drogodependientes. Adicciones. 2011;23(4):227-87. | CrossRef |

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